What Lunar Soil Bricks Are?

Lunar soil bricks are a type of building material developed by Chinese scientists for the construction of future moon bases. These bricks are created by sintering a material that closely mimics the composition of actual lunar soil.

Why are such bricks necessary? Building structures on the Moon is no easy feat. Engineers must contend with extreme temperature swings, low gravity, the vacuum of space, intense radiation, moonquakes, and even impacts from micrometeorites. Traditional building materials from Earth wouldn’t survive these harsh conditions, making lunar-specific solutions like these bricks a critical breakthrough.

Interestingly, lunar soil bricks share a similar density to conventional building materials, such as red bricks, grey bricks, and concrete blocks. However, their strength is where they truly shine. These bricks boast a compressive strength of more than three times greater than standard red or concrete bricks. They can support over a ton of weight on just one square centimeter of their surface. This impressive durability makes them perfectly suited for the Moon’s demanding environment.

How Lunar Soil Bricks Are Made?

What does it take to craft lunar soil bricks? The Moon’s complex surface environment demands exceptionally high performance from these bricks. So, how are they formed? The process involves vacuum hot-press sintering and can be broken down into three main steps.

First, the simulated lunar soil is carefully weighed and placed into a mold. Since lunar soil is highly loose and granular, it must be compacted in the mold to form a stable preform. Engineers ensure uniform pressure is applied during this stage to create a solid base.

Once compacted, the preform—still encased in the mold—is transferred to a vacuum hot-press furnace. Insulation is added to maintain consistent heat, and the entire apparatus is sealed. The furnace is then heated to temperatures exceeding 1000°C to sinter the material.

Scientists found that using an electromagnetic induction furnace can raise the temperature to over 1000°C in about 10 minutes. Tests have shown that sintering in an inert gas environment produces the highest strength, reaching over 100 MPa. In a vacuum, effective sintering can occur at 1000–1100°C, and adding pressure can further shorten the sintering time.

The team, led by Ding Lieyun, has conducted extensive trials using three sintering methods: vacuum sintering, inert gas sintering, and air sintering. Each approach has been carefully evaluated for its effectiveness, with inert gas sintering demonstrating the greatest material strength. The final specifications of lunar soil bricks must align with the Moon’s environmental requirements, ensuring they can withstand extreme conditions such as low gravity, high vacuum, and wide temperature fluctuations.

What In-Situ Forming Technique Is?

The in-situ forming technique refers to a construction method that utilizes locally available resources to create building materials directly on-site. In the context of future lunar research stations, this approach enables the use of lunar regolith, solar energy, and other lunar minerals to fabricate construction components.

Why is this method essential? Transporting prefabricated building materials from Earth to the Moon is both costly and logistically challenging. By relying on lunar in-situ resources, the need for heavy payloads is eliminated, significantly reducing the overall cost of construction on the Moon.

Simulated “lunar soil bricks” are currently undergoing space exposure experiments to evaluate their performance under harsh space conditions. These tests will provide critical data on how the bricks behave and degrade, helping scientists refine their properties and optimize construction methods. This research is paving the way for the practical implementation of lunar base construction, ensuring that future designs are both efficient and resilient.

Overcoming Challenges in Lunar Base Construction

Building a lunar base is no small feat, requiring solutions to overcome extreme temperature fluctuations, low gravity, high vacuum conditions, intense radiation, moonquakes, and impacts from micrometeorites. Designing suitable structures for the lunar surface has been an ongoing challenge for Ding Lieyun’s team. Their experiments have included dome, arch, and columnar designs, each iteratively tested to balance environmental compatibility with ease of construction.

One of their most promising concepts, the “Moon Jar,” features a double-dome structure incorporating 12 design parameters. This design maximizes interior space while minimizing stress, optimizing thermal insulation, and reducing material weight. The use of lightweight materials and minimal resource consumption further enhances its feasibility.

For construction, 3D printing emerges as a key technology. However, it must overcome significant hurdles: rockets currently lack the capacity to transport heavy equipment, and materials must meet specific flow and stability requirements. For instance, lunar soil needs sufficient flowability to be extruded during 3D printing. If it flows poorly, the structure cannot be formed; if it flows too well, it collapses. Achieving the right balance of flowability and stability is a complex task requiring extensive research.

Ding’s team has proposed an innovative 3D printing method that begins with foundation reinforcement using slurry injection, followed by structure printing directly on the lunar surface. For domes, an inflatable airbag is used as a mold, onto which layers are printed to complete the structure. While this method allows for the construction of various shapes, challenges such as the continuous nature of 3D printing, the difficulty of single-pass large-scale forming, and high energy consumption persist.

To address these issues, the team has creatively drawn inspiration from traditional Chinese masonry and mortise-and-tenon techniques. By sintering lunar soil into bricks with interlocking structures, they propose an assembly-based approach. These bricks, with their intricate joints, can be robotically assembled into stable structures. 3D printing can then be employed to reinforce connections, ensuring structural integrity while reducing the risks associated with one-time large-scale formation. This hybrid technique represents a significant step forward in lunar base construction, combining traditional principles with cutting-edge technology.

Exposure Experiments: A Critical Step in Lunar Soil Brick Research

Exposure experiments play a pivotal role in evaluating lunar soil bricks, designed to withstand the Moon’s extreme environmental challenges. Lunar days can reach scorching temperatures of over 180°C, while nights plummet to -190°C. The absence of an atmosphere subjects the Moon’s surface to intense cosmic radiation, frequent micrometeorite impacts, and high-frequency moonquakes. These factors place stringent demands on the mechanical, thermal, and radiation-resistant properties of lunar construction materials.

Space-based testing is essential to validate the performance of lunar soil bricks under such conditions. These tests provide critical insights for material selection and process optimization, enabling the development of robust structures for lunar bases. The current batch of bricks, created using simulated lunar soil modeled on samples returned by the Chang’e-5 mission, includes three sample panels comprising 74 smaller specimens. These samples feature various shapes, such as sheets, columns, and spheres, reflecting diverse potential applications.

Recently, these lunar soil bricks were successfully sent to the Chinese Space Station aboard the Tianzhou-8 cargo craft. Over the next three years, they will undergo exposure experiments in space to simulate the degradation they might experience in the lunar environment. This testing aims to evaluate their long-term stability and reliability.

During the experiment, the bricks will be directly exposed to the harsh conditions of outer space, including cosmic rays, solar radiation, and micrometeorite impacts. Researchers will conduct periodic inspections, gathering data on their degradation over time. Key parameters to be measured include changes in dimensions, weight, structural integrity, thermal conductivity, and radiation damage.

This data will be invaluable in refining the design and manufacturing processes of lunar soil bricks. By understanding how these materials respond to space conditions, scientists can enhance their performance, ensuring they meet the rigorous demands of lunar construction. These findings will lay a solid foundation for building resilient and sustainable lunar habitats in the future.

Upon the completion of the space exposure experiment, the first batch of lunar soil bricks subjected to space conditions is expected to return to Earth by the end of 2025. These bricks will be brought back aboard a spacecraft.

Once retrieved, researchers will conduct comprehensive analyses of the bricks to assess their potential for practical application in the lunar environment. This detailed investigation will focus on evaluating their performance under the Moon’s extreme conditions and determining their suitability for future lunar base construction.

The findings from these studies will provide critical scientific evidence and technical guidance for the design and implementation of lunar habitats. By leveraging these results, scientists can further optimize materials and construction techniques, ensuring the feasibility and durability of lunar infrastructure in the decades to come.

The post Base on the Moon: Brick by Brick first appeared on China Academy.

China has revealed the exterior design of its next-generation lunar spacesuit, marking a significant technical milestone in the nation’s ambitious plan to land astronauts on the moon before 2030. The unveiling, which took place at the third Spacesuit Technology Forum in Chongqing on September 28, showcases the culmination of a four-year development effort that began in 2020.

The new extravehicular suit represents a substantial evolution from China’s Feitian spacesuits currently used for low Earth orbit operations. Designed specifically for lunar surface operations, the suit incorporates advanced materials science and ergonomic innovations to address the unique challenges of lunar exploration.

“Different from performing low Earth orbit missions, astronauts will be exposed to a naturally harsh lunar environment when carrying out lunar-surface extravehicular activities,” explains Wu Zhiqiang from the China Astronaut Research and Training Center. The suit must protect against multiple environmental challenges, including high vacuum conditions, extreme temperature variations, intense radiation, and abrasive lunar regolith.

A key design priority has been weight reduction while maintaining comprehensive protection. “Considering that they are working under one-sixth gravity, in order to reduce the metabolic load of the human body, it is a must to greatly reduce the suit’s weight,” notes Wang Chunhui, deputy chief designer of astronaut training systems at the Center.

Technical features of the new suit include a comprehensively protective fabric layer for thermal protection and dust mitigation, a panoramic glare-proof visor, and an integrated multi-functional control console mounted on the chest panel. The suit is also equipped with dual cameras on the helmet for both close-range and long-distance video documentation.

In demonstration footage, astronauts Zhai Zhigang and Wang Yaping – veterans of China’s space station missions – showcased the suit’s mobility capabilities, performing various movements including walking, squatting, bending, and ladder climbing. The demonstrations highlight the suit’s enhanced joint designs, which have been specifically optimized for lunar gravity conditions.

The exterior design incorporates distinctive red stripes, drawing inspiration from traditional Chinese aesthetics while serving functional purposes. The suit is part of China’s broader lunar exploration architecture, which includes development of the Long March 10 heavy-lift rocket, a new crew spacecraft, and a lunar lander.

China’s initial crewed lunar mission plan calls for a relatively brief surface stay of approximately six hours, with two astronauts conducting exploration activities. However, this mission is envisioned as a stepping stone toward more ambitious lunar presence. The country has announced plans for robotic missions to the lunar south pole in 2026 and 2028 to conduct resource surveys and in-situ resource utilization tests, leading toward the establishment of the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) in the 2030s.

The China Manned Space Agency is currently soliciting public submissions for naming the new spacesuit, with the campaign running until October 31, 2024. This spacesuit development builds upon China’s experience with its Feitian series, which has supported 17 successful extravehicular activities during space station operations.

As China advances toward its goal of putting boots on the moon by 2030, this new spacesuit stands as a symbol of the nation’s technological prowess and cultural heritage, ready to protect the next generation of lunar explorers as they make their mark in space history.

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The process of producing water from lunar soil is not overly complex. Due to the abundant presence of hydrogen in the moon’s titanium iron ore, heating it to high temperatures triggers a redox reaction with the iron oxide in the mineral, resulting in the production of elemental iron and a large quantity of water. When the temperature reaches over 1000°C, the lunar soil melts, and the water formed during the reaction is released as water vapor through an oxidation-reduction reaction.

The lunar soil minerals have accumulated a significant amount of hydrogen over millions of years of solar wind exposure. By heating it to high temperatures, hydrogen reacts with the iron oxide in the mineral, producing elemental iron and abundant water. Researchers observed the generation of bubbles instead of helium release when heating lunar titanium iron ore. Through techniques such as electron energy-loss spectroscopy, researchers identified the presence of “water.”

It has been 55 years since the manned Apollo 11 mission to the moon, where the U.S. collected 371.1 kilograms of lunar soil. Despite the U.S. leading in technology and lunar research for decades, it seems they neglected some basic groundwork. Was their monumental effort to reach the moon merely for planting a flag, taking photos, leaving footprints, driving the lunar rover, having a video call with Nixon?

Split screen of President Richard Nixon and the Apollo 11 astronauts on a White House television, July 20, 1969.

The Chinese research team confirmed that approximately 51-76 milligrams of water can be produced from 1 gram of lunar soil (5.1%—7.6%) through various experimental analyses. Extrapolating this, 1 ton of lunar soil can yield around 51-76 kilograms of water, equivalent to over 100 bottles of 500ml bottled water, sufficient for the daily water consumption of 50 individuals.

The method is straightforward – 1. Focus sunlight on lunar soil using concave mirrors or Fresnel lenses to heat it to melting point. During heating, the soil reacts with the hydrogen injected by solar wind, producing water, elemental iron, and ceramic glass. 2. Condense the water vapor into liquid water, collect and store it in tanks to meet the water needs of humans and various animals and plants on the moon. 3. Electrolyze water to generate oxygen and hydrogen – oxygen for human respiration and hydrogen as an energy source. 4. Iron can be used to produce permanent and soft magnetic materials, raw materials for power electronic devices, and as a building material. 5. Melted lunar soil can be used to make brick blocks with mortise and tenon structure for constructing lunar base buildings.

With “potable water, oxygen, energy, electronic industry materials, and building materials” now available on the moon, humanity has established the material foundation for living in lunar bases.

The Chinese approach to the moon is notably pragmatic, far beyond mere symbolic gestures like personal moon landings, flag planting, footprints, or lunar joyriding – activities often associated with American-style “political theatrics”. China envisions the moon as a potential “home” to be developed, as reflected in the meticulous, rational, and strategic nature of its lunar exploration program. Each step, from unmanned lunar missions, Queqiao relay satellite, lunar orbiting, lunar rovers, soil collection, manned moon landings, to establishing lunar bases, serves the ultimate goal of shaping a future “Earth-Moon ecosystem” and “human fleet base”.

Chinese scientists have always been pragmatic yet innovative. Since the initiation of the lunar exploration program, the focus has shifted from “how to land on the moon” to “what to do after landing on the moon”. Various research teams are exploring methods to establish a permanent lunar base to ensure human survival. In this process, disciplines such as physics, chemistry, geology, electromagnetics, nuclear physics, and even civil engineering are all contributing their creativity and practical skills.

Some are exploring the idea of utilizing lunar underground caverns to create “lunar cave bases”, while others are planning to capitalize on the moon’s low gravity and lack of atmospheric resistance to construct a “lunar electromagnetic launch device”. By harnessing the endless solar power on the moon to create a “lunar cannon”, valuable resources like helium-3 can be catapulted back to Earth. China has meticulously planned the moon’s new energy sources, logistics, and mining industries, showcasing that lunar exploration is just a means to the end goal of lunar development and construction.

In recent years, there have been numerous ambitious projects aiming to make their mark on the moon. For instance, Harbin Institute of Technology’s team presented a comprehensive plan for constructing a “lunar lava tube base” in a document titled “Chinese Lunar Space Station and Lunar Lava Tube Base Development Plan”.  The detailed steps include establishing a lunar orbit space station, conducting unmanned operations on the lunar surface, surveying and scanning lava tube formations, drilling with equipment to create a large cavity, surface cleaning and leveling, precise landing of core modules, inflatable support structures, and filling with a “lunar soil mixture” to construct lunar base buildings. Surrounding infrastructure such as photovoltaic stations, energy centers, and Earth-Moon transit centers would also be built.

Moreover, there’s an audacious “lunar cannon” project, known as the “lunar electromagnetic launch device”, which involves establishing a magnetic levitation launch device on the moon powered by superconductive motors using solar energy or nuclear reactors for electricity generation. This system aims to catapult lunar resources back to Earth, utilizing minimal energy due to the vacuum and lack of atmospheric resistance on the moon, costing only a fraction compared to chemical rockets on Earth.

Researchers suggest that this system’s technological readiness is relatively high. As it solely requires electrical power without the need for propellants, the system can remain compact and easy to implement. Furthermore, the system primarily relies on solar and nuclear energy sources, with over 70% of the kinetic energy post-launch being recoverable and converted back into electrical energy. What resources are being launched? Primarily, helium-3, a crucial material for nuclear fusion with exceptionally high energy efficiency. Just 20 tons of helium-3 could meet China’s annual electricity demand. While Earth has limited helium-3 reserves, the moon harbors at least millions of tons, potentially satisfying global electricity needs for over 2,000 years if utilized for power generation. Helium-3 is mainly concentrated in the lunar surface, with depths not exceeding several meters, making extraction feasible with simple mechanical methods.

If the “lunar electromagnetic launch device” becomes a reality, the concept of “I contribute helium-3 to my homeland” would transition from science fiction to a tantalizing prospect.  It’s evident that China has meticulously designed and planned the entire moon, leaving little room for others, notably the United States, to exert influence. Whether the U.S. follows suit or not, its future presence in the skies remains uncertain.

Chinese Science Fiction Art：China 2098- offer 3He for motherland

Today, without China, the world would resemble a larger version of India, with Western nations voraciously consuming resources and the rest of the world languishing as compliant slaves. Humanity would be fragmented and directionless, sealing its own fate. It’s clear that the future of the world lies in China’s hands, as it endeavors to unite human civilization and evolve it from a planetary civilization to a cosmic one. Ultimately, the responsibility falls upon us to steer the course of human destiny towards the stars.

The post How Will the Chinese Transform the Moon? first appeared on China Academy.

Now, in a significant development for lunar exploration, researchers from the Chinese Academy of Sciences have proposed an innovative technique that could transform the very essence of lunar exploration, offering the promise of self-sustaining missions and potentially paving the way for permanent human settlements beyond Earth.

These researchers have successfully synthesized water from the minerals and hydrogen found in the lunar soil obtained from Chang’E-5’s last lunar mission. They believe the hydrogen were retained in lunar soil from the solar wind.

Specifically, their unique approach involves the chemical reaction of FeO/Fe2O3 (iron oxides) with hydrogen (H), which are both present in the sample, to produce water (H2O). This reaction can generate significant amounts of water. The experiments demonstrated that melting 1 gram of lunar soil at temperatures exceeding 1200 K could yield 51–76 mg of water—an astonishing 10,000 times more than the naturally occurring hydroxyl and water on the Moon. When expanded, this technique could produce more than 50 kg of water from a metric ton of lunar soil.

However, FeO/Fe2O3 is not the best candidate for a potential mass production of water. Researchers examined different types of minerals found on the Moon, and they discovered that a mineral called FeTiO3 ilmenite holds the highest amount of hydrogen. This mineral stands out because of its special structure that contains tiny tunnels less than a nanometer in size. Through innovative experiments using a powerful tool known as a transmission electron microscope, scientists saw that when this mineral was heated in a controlled environment, it led to the creation of both iron crystals and bubbles of water. These observations helped them understand how the exchange of electrons, triggered by electron irradiation, influenced chemical reactions involving hydrogen and oxygen compounds on the Moon’s surface. This knowledge is crucial for unraveling the mysteries of water distribution and related compounds on the lunar terrain.

Precipitation of Fe nanocrystal-H2O bubble pairs in lunar ilmenite

This exciting development not only unlocks the potential for sustained lunar missions but also opens doors to a future where humans could establish a more permanent presence in space. By harnessing the resources of our celestial neighbor, we inch closer to realizing our dreams of exploration and discovery beyond the confines of our home planet.

Strategy for on-site H2O production on the Moon

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